Role of Mass in physics

In the examination .the mass is an important topic . In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is the measure of an object's resistance to acceleration (a change in its state of motion) when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other bodies. In the theory of relativity a related concept is the mass–energy content of a system. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

Mass is not the same as weight, even though we often calculate an object's mass by measuring its weight with a spring scale, rather than comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) determines the strength of this force.

In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object. However, at very high speeds, special relativity postulates that energy is an additional source of mass. Thus, any stationary body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy, and all forms of energy resist acceleration by a force and have gravitational attraction. In addition, "matter" is a loosely defined term in science, and thus cannot be precisely measured.

There are several distinct phenomena which can be used to measure mass. Although some theorists have speculated that some of these phenomena could be independent of each other, current experiments have found no difference in results, whatever way is used to measure mass:

Inertial mass measures an object's resistance to being accelerated by a force (represented by the relationship F = ma).Active gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted by an object.Passive gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted on an object in a known gravitational field.Mass–energy measures the total amount of energy contained within a body, using E = mc2.

The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force. The inertia and the inertial mass describe the same properties of physical bodies at the qualitative and quantitative level respectively, by other words, the mass quantitatively describes the inertia. According to Newton's second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F/m. A body's mass also determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field. If a first body of mass mA is placed at a distance r (center of mass to center of mass) from a second body of mass mB, each body is subject to an attractive force Fg = GmAmB/r2, where G = 6.67×10−11 N kg−2 m2 is the "universal gravitational constant". This is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass.Repeated experiments since the 17th century have demonstrated that inertial and gravitational mass are identical; since 1915, this observation has been entailed a priori in the equivalence principle of general relativity.

HOW TO GET THE NAME 'THE EVEREST' FOR THE MOUNT EVERST ?

In 1865, The Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon a recommendation by Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India. As there appeared to be several different local names, Waugh chose to name the mountain after his predecessor in the post, Sir George Everest, despite George Everest's objections.

Mount Everest, also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthā and in China as Chomolungma is Earth's highest mountain. Its peak is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. Mount Everest is located in the Mahalangur mountain range in Nepal. The international border between China (Tibet Autonomous Region) and Nepal runs across Everest's precise summit point. Its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse, 8,516 m (27,940 ft); Nuptse, 7,855 m (25,771 ft) and Changtse, 7,580 m (24,870 ft).

In 1856, the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India established the first published height of Everest, then known as Peak XV, at 8,840 m (29,002 ft). The current official height of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) as recognised by China and Nepal was established by a 1955 Indian survey and subsequently confirmed by a Chinese survey in 1975. In 2005, China remeasured the height of the mountain and got a result of 8844.43 m. An argument regarding the height between China and Nepal lasted 5 years from 2005 to 2010. China argued it should be measured by its rock height which is 8844 m but Nepal said it should be measured by its snow height 8848 m. In 2010, an agreement was finally reached by both sides that the height of Everest is 8,848 m and Nepal recognises China's claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m.

Mount Everest attracts many climbers, some of them highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes: one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal (known as the standard route) and the other from the north in Tibet, China. While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, wind as well as significant objective hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall. As of 2016, there are well over 200 corpses still on the mountain, with some of them even serving as landmarks.

The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers. With Nepal not allowing foreigners into the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7,000 m (22,970 ft) on the North Col, the 1922 expedition pushed the North ridge route up to 8,320 m (27,300 ft) marking the first time a human had climbed above 8,000 m (26,247 ft). Tragedy struck on the descent from the North col when seven porters were killed in an avalanche. The 1924 expedition resulted in one of the greatest mysteries on Everest to this day: George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, sparking debate as to whether they were the first to reach the top. They had been spotted high on the mountain that day but disappeared in the clouds, never to be seen again, until Mallory's body was found in 1999 at 8,155 m (26,755 ft) on the North face. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first official ascent of Everest in 1953 using the southeast ridge route. Tenzing had reached 8,595 m (28,199 ft) the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition. The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge on 25 May 1960.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner -major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (originally The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere) is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797–98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads. Modern editions use a revised version printed in 1817 that featured a gloss. Along with other poems in Lyrical Ballads, it was a signal shift to modern poetry and the beginning of British Romantic literature.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the experiences of a sailor who has returned from a long sea voyage. The mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony and begins to narrate a story. The wedding-guest's reaction turns from bemusement to impatience to fear to fascination as the mariner's story progresses, as can be seen in the language style: Coleridge uses narrative techniques such as personification and repetition to create a sense of danger, the supernatural, or serenity, depending on the mood in different parts of the poem.

The mariner's tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south by a storm and eventually reaches Antarctic waters. An albatross appears and leads them out of the ice jam where they are stuck, but even as the albatross is praised by the ship's crew, the mariner shoots the bird:

With my cross-bow,

I shot the albatross.

The crew is angry with the mariner, believing the albatross brought the south wind that led them out of the Antarctic. However, the sailors change their minds when the weather becomes warmer and the mist disappears:

'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay,

That bring the fog and mist.

They soon find that they made a grave mistake in supporting this crime, as it arouses the wrath of spirits who then pursue the ship "from the land of mist and snow"; the south wind that had initially led them from the land of ice now sends the ship into uncharted waters near the equator, where it is becalmed.

Day after day, day after day,

We stuck, nor breath nor motion;

As idle as a painted ship

Upon a painted ocean.

Water, water, every where,

And all the boards did shrink;

Water, water, every where,

Nor any drop to drink.

The very deep did rot – Oh Christ!

That ever this should be.

Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs,

Upon the slimy sea.

Engraving by Gustave Doré for an 1876 edition of the poem. "The Albatross," depicts 17 sailors on the deck of a wooden ship facing an albatross. Icicles hang from the rigging.

The sailors change their minds again and blame the mariner for the torment of their thirst. In anger, the crew forces the mariner to wear the dead albatross about his neck, perhaps to illustrate the burden he must suffer from killing it, or perhaps as a sign of regret:

Ah! Well a-day! What evil looks

Had I from old and young!

Instead of the cross, the albatross

About my neck was hung.

Eventually, the ship encounters a ghostly hulk. On board are Death (a skeleton) and the "Night-mare Life-in-Death", a deathly-pale woman, who are playing dice for the souls of the crew. With a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life-in-Death the life of the mariner, a prize she considers more valuable. Her name is a clue to the mariner's fate: he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross.

One by one, all of the crew members die, but the mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crew's corpses, whose last expressions remain upon their faces. Eventually, this stage of the mariner's curse is lifted after he appreciates the sea creatures swimming in the water. Despite his cursing them as "slimy things" earlier in the poem, he suddenly sees their true beauty and blesses them ("a spring of love gush'd from my heart, and I bless'd them unaware"); suddenly, as he manages to pray, the albatross falls from his neck and his guilt is partially expiated. The bodies of the crew, possessed by good spirits, rise again and help steer the ship. In a trance, the mariner hears two spirits discussing his voyage and penance, and learns that the ship is being powered preternaturally:

The air is cut away before,

And closes from behind.

Finally the mariner comes in sight of his homeland, but is initially uncertain as to whether or not he is hallucinating.

Oh! Dream of joy! Is this indeed

The light-house top I see?

Is this the hill? Is this the kirk?

Is this mine own countree?

We drifted o'er the harbour-bar,

And I with sobs did pray—

O let me be awake, my God!

Or let me sleep alway.

The rotten remains of the ship sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy, in a boat. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the pilot has a fit. The hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilot's boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, and cries, "The Devil knows how to row". As penance for shooting the albatross, the mariner, driven by guilt, is forced to wander the earth, telling his story over and over, and teaching a lesson to those he meets:

He prayeth best, who loveth best

All things both great and small;

For the dear God who loveth us,

He made and loveth all.

After relaying the story, the mariner leaves, and the wedding guest returns home, and wakes the next morning "a sadder and a wiser man".

The poem received mixed reviews from critics, and Coleridge was once told by the publisher that most of the book's sales were to sailors who thought it was a naval songbook. Coleridge made several modifications to the poem over the years. In the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, published in 1800, he replaced many of the archaic words.

Poet of nature- William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth is known as 'poet of nature'. He was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798).

Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semiautobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850.The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of 900 pounds from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet.

It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. In 1797, Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy moved to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the "real language of men" and avoids the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility," and calls his own poems in the book "experimental". A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805.

Book review in the literature

It is the famous topic in literature. A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content, style, and merit. A book review can be a primary sourceopinion piece, summary review or scholarly review. Books can be reviewed for printed periodicals, magazines and newspapers, as school work, or for book web sites on the Internet. A book review's length may vary from a single paragraph to a substantial essays. Such a review may evaluate the book on the basis of personal taste. Reviewers may use the occasion of a book review for a display of learning or to promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work.

There are a number of journals devoted to book reviews,and reviews are indexed in databases such as Book Review Index and Kirkus Reviews; but many more book reviews can be found in newspaper databases as well as scholarly databases such as Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Social Sciences Citation Index and discipline-specific databases.

lightning conductor as a protection of life

 lightning conductor is a protection of life .A lightning rod or lightning conductor is a metal rod or metallic object mounted on top of an elevated structure, such as a building, a ship, or even a tree, electrically bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface with ground or "earth" through an electrode, engineered to protect the structure in the event of lightning strike. If lightning hits the structure, it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through the wire, instead of passing through the structure, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution. Lightning rods are also called finials, air terminals or strike termination devices.In a lightning protection system, a lightning rod is a single component of the system. The lightning rod requires a connection to earth to perform its protective function. Lightning rods come in many different forms, including hollow, solid, pointed, rounded, flat strips or even bristle brush-like. The main attribute common to all lightning rods is that they are all made of conductive materials, such as copper and aluminum. Copper and its alloys are the most common materials used in lightning protection.

A lightning protection system is designed to protect a structure from damage due to lightning strikes by intercepting such strikes and safely passing their extremely high currents to ground. A lightning protection system includes a network of air terminals, bonding conductors, and ground electrodes designed to provide a low impedance path to ground for potential strikes.

Lightning protection systems are used to prevent or lessen lightning strike damage to structures. Lightning protection systems mitigate the fire hazard which lightning strikes pose to structures. A lightning protection system provides a low-impedance path for the lightning current to lessen the heating effect of current flowing through flammable structural materials. If lightning travels through porous and water-saturated materials, these materials may literally explode if their water content is flashed to steam by heat produced from the high current. This is why trees are often shattered by lightning strikes.

Because of the high energy and current levels associated with lightning (currents can be in excess of 150,000 amps), and the very rapid rise time of a lightning strike, no protection system can guarantee absolute safety from lightning. Lightning current will divide to follow every conductive path to ground, and even the divided current can cause damage. Secondary "side-flashes" can be enough to ignite a fire, blow apart brick, stone, or concrete, or injure occupants within a structure or building. However, the benefits of basic lightning protection systems have been evident for well over a century.

Laboratory-scale measurements of the effects of do not scale to applications involving natural lightning.Field applications have mainly been derived from trial and error based on the best intended laboratory research of a highly complex and variable phenomenon.

The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning rods or strike termination devices), bonding conductors, ground terminals (ground or "earthing" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the connectors and supports to complete the system. The air terminals are typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof structure, and are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors (called "down conductors" or "downleads"), which are connected by the most direct route to one or more grounding or earthing terminals. Connections to the earth electrodes must not only have low resistance, but must have low self-inductance.

An example of a structure vulnerable to lightning is a wooden barn. When lightning strikes the barn, the wooden structure and its contents may be ignited by the heat generated by lightning current conducted through parts of the structure. A basic lightning protection system would provide a conductive path between an air terminal and earth, so that most of the lightning's current will follow the path of the lightning protection system, with substantially less current traveling through flammable materials.

A controversy over the assortment of operation theories dates back to the 18th century, when Benjamin Franklin himself stated that his lightning protectors protected buildings by dissipating electric charge. He later retracted the statement, stating that the device's exact mode of operation was something of a mystery at that point.

Originally, scientists believed that such a lightning protection system of air terminals and "downleads" directed the current of the lightning down into the earth to be "dissipated". However, high speed photography has clearly demonstrated that lightning is actually composed of both a cloud component and an oppositely charged ground component. During "cloud-to-ground" lightning, these oppositely charged components usually "meet" somewhere in the atmosphere well above the earth to equalize previously unbalanced charges. The heat generated as this electric current flows through flammable materials is the hazard which lightning protection systems attempt to mitigate by providing a low-resistance path for the lightning circuit. No lightning protection system can be relied upon to "contain" or "control" lightning completely (nor thus far, to prevent lightning strikes entirely), but they do seem to help immensely on most occasions of lightning strikes.

Steel framed structures can bond the structural members to earth to provide lightning protection. A metal flagpole with its foundation in the earth is its own extremely simple lightning protection system. However, the flag(s) flying from the pole during a lightning strike may be completely incinerated.

The majority of lightning protection systems in use today are of the traditional Franklin design.The fundamental principle used in Franklin-type lightning protections systems is to provide a sufficiently low impedance path for the lightning to travel through to reach ground without damaging the building. This is accomplished by surrounding the building in a kind of Faraday cage. A system of lightning protection conductors and lightning rods are installed on the roof of the building to intercept any lightning before it strikes the building.

Famous magazine,.Vanity Fair

It is the famous magazine in america.Vanity Fair was an American society magazine published from 1913 to 1936. It was highly successful until the Great Depression led to it becoming unprofitable, and it was merged into Vogue in 1936.Condé Nast began his empire by purchasing the men's fashion magazine Dress in 1913. He renamed the magazine Dress and Vanity Fair and published four issues in 1913. He is said[citation needed] to have paid $3,000 for the right to use the title "Vanity Fair" in the United States, but it is unknown whether the right was granted by an earlier English publication or some other source. It was almost certainly the magazine called The Standard and Vanity Fair, "the only periodical printed for the playgoer and player", published weekly by the "Standard and Vanity Fair Company, Inc", whose president was Harry Mountford, also General Director of the White Rats theatrical union. After a short period of inactivity the magazine was relaunched in 1914 as Vanity Fair.The magazine achieved great popularity under editor Frank Crowninshield. In 1919 Robert Benchley was tapped to become managing editor. He joined Dorothy Parker, who had come to the magazine from Vogue, and was the staff drama critic. Benchley hired future playwright Robert E. Sherwood, who had recently returned from World War I. The trio were among the original members of the Algonquin Round Table, which met at the Algonquin Hotel, on the same West 44th Street block as Condé Nast's offices.

Crowninshield attracted some of the best writers of the era. Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, Ferenc Molnár, Gertrude Stein, and Djuna Barnes all appeared in a single issue, July 1923.Starting in 1925, Vanity Fair competed with The New Yorker as the American establishment's top culture chronicle. It contained writing by Thomas Wolfe, T. S. Eliot and P. G. Wodehouse, theatre criticisms by Dorothy Parker, and photographs by Edward Steichen; Clare Boothe Luce was its editor for some time.

In 1915, it published more pages of advertisements than any other U.S. magazine. It continued to thrive into the 1920s. However, it became a casualty of the Great Depression and declining advertising revenues, although its circulation, at 90,000 copies, was at its peak. Condé Nast announced in December 1935 that Vanity Fair would be merged with Vogue (circulation 156,000) as of the March 1936 issue.it one

Bring out the symbolism implied in the struggle of the old man against the sea in the novel.

The word symbolism came to be associated with Hemingway only after the appearance of the novel The Old Man and the Sea. In The Old Man and the Sea, we find that the symbolism of Hemingway has far deeper significance. Here also the story is only the small visible part built up by a series of parables and symbols. Hemingway himself has said, “I tried to make a real old man a real old man and a real boy, a real scene, a real fish and real sharks. But if I made them good and sure enough, they would mean many things. So apart from being a moving little story on fishing, the book could be read as personal parable and universal allegory”. 

Hemingway has taken many facts from his own life for this novel. Something of his character and personality is given to the hero of the novel. But in The Old Man and the Sea, the identification between the author and the hero is complete. In Santiago’s story the reader is to detect the struggles of Hemingway his confidence and his determination. Santiago goes for his work always with care and precision. He shows extraordinary courage. He represents Hemingway. They are similar in many ways. In spite of the extreme difficulties Santiago triumphs over the fish, even though finally he is defeated by the sharks. 

He is happy that he did not surrender to the marlin or the sea. For Hemingway Gulf Stream is time. The marlin which is hidden in the deep sea is truth hidden in the depth of time. Hemingway is trying to understand this truth like Santiago who tries to catch the marlin from the depth of the sea. We seeHemingway’s daring soul in Santiago’s determination to go far into the sea.The symbolism in the soul is not limited to personal level. Thewhole novel is underlined by a universal parable. It is the representation of life as a struggle against unconquerable natural forces. Victory is possible in this action. Santiago represents the great heroes of Greek tragedy fated to failure yet struggling nobly against the hatred of an adverse enemy.

Santiago’s aspiration, personality and inevitable nature of his failure reminds us of those heroes. His words “man is not made for defeat, a man can be destroyed, but not defeated” reflects this comparison. In the novel there is an unmistakable Christian strain. Santiago fights the good fight, without caring for the reward. Towards the end of his struggle, he even says, “I don’t care who kills who”. Santiago is an example of the doctrine of Christian love. He has the fisherman apostle and martyr from the sea of Galilee in him. He has also something of St.Francis in him as he feels for the birds and fishes. The natural compassion he feels towards creatures is essentially a Christian virtue. He repeatedly mutters “Hail Mary” but we cannot take him as a religious person. Instead we can see the Christian Spirit in him. He shows certain qualities of mind and heart which are clearly related to the character and personality of Jesus Christ in the parables. Hemingway’s use of symbolism is so restrained that he cannot be categorised along with those who are usually labeled as symbolists. He uses symbolism with a strict restraint so as to work protect his realism.

FICTION AS BASE FOR LITERARY AND MEDIA WRITING

Fiction is the term for any invented literary narrative. It refers to novels, short stories and other works of art that do not try to tell true stories. While they may be inspired by real events or people fiction writers create characters dialogue and plots completely from their imagination. Story telling becomes the basis of most other entertainment media like movies, television and comic books. In the 20th century, new media expanded, including motion pictures radio and television. These used fictional story telling structures borrowed from novelsor stage drama.

In modern times thousands of works of fiction are published in many languages every year. Electronic media like audio books and e-books offer new ways for readers to enjoy stories of all kinds. Self publishing and online publishing make it possible for writers to find readers outside of traditional publishing places. In a wider sense, fiction remains the primary form of narrative in most of the media. Movies, television shows, and stage dramas still depend upon the fictional forms to tell stories. While the future of print media is uncertain, the art of the story has already established a strong presence in the field of electronic media.

A visual narrative is a type of story that is told completely through visual media. There are no restrictions on the types of narratives that can be made in a visual manner. Visual narrative as a story telling style permits a great deal of variety in methodology and presentation. Such a narrative can be a film, a graphic novel or comic book or a series of images. Here artists and story tellers have a great deal of space for experimentation. Visual narrative allows the story teller to tell stories from many different angles. They use a wide range of methods also to communicate various aspects of the narrative. Written narratives and visual narratives have much in common. They have the same goals. Visuals narrative is always aiming to communicate a story of some form just as a written story is. They even use similar plot elements, complex characters, conflicts, leading to the further development of the characters.

Visual narrative primarily depends on images to communicate ideas by incorporating other media. This is done to enrich the story. Films often depend on speech and other audio components, even though most of the action is visual in nature. Most of the artists or story tellers like to tell their narratives by using images. These types of narrative will be highly informative and complex as any film or story.

PLOT, CHARACTER AND THE STRUCTURE OF NOVEL IN FICTION

Fictions are especially novels describing imaginary events. Novels have different kinds of plot form-tragic, comic, satiric or romantic, and to a great extent its characters reveal themselves and their intentions in dialogue. The novel is characterized as the fictional attempt to give the effect of realism, by representing complex characters with mixed motives that are rooted in a social class. It functions in a highly developed social structure. It also mixes up with many other characters. It is like a play with plot and characters. A dramatist must depend on what he can make us see and hear for ourselves, but a novelist can describe what could never be presented on any stage. He can tell us what is happening, explain it and finally give his own remarks on it. His story may not be symmetrical in exposition, crisis and denouement. At the beginning of the book there will be a crisis. After that before the climax, the book will devote its pages to show how the crisis arose.

 The novel has no strict frame work. Usually foreign critics have commented that English novels lack as ense of proportion even though it has richness and variety in it. Due to this the author takes full advantage of the freedom he gets. The novelist is eager to represent life in its fullness and its creative urge may overshadow his sense of artistic unityand balance in narrative, description, characterization and dialogue.  But this willmatter nothing if the author can keep the reader under his control with his plot,characters and narrative style until the story ends. The author’s personality is a veryimportant factor. Every novel must present a certain view of life and some of the problems of life. It should be a mirror reflecting the author’s outlook of the world with all incidents, characters, passions and motives. It should be our agreement or disagreement with this view of life that decides our choice in fiction.

The earlier works of English fiction were stories of action. In modern novels the tendency has been to subordinate action to psychology. They try to find the central theme in the mental and spiritual development of the characters rather than in their physical adventures. In the greatest novels plot and characterization are organically connected. There is an argument that characterization is the most important aspect.Even if the reader cannot relate the complex plot, they will never forget the characters.

The setting of a novel can be in any part of the world. They can be set in any time past, present or future. Almost every period of English history has contributed a novel. Regarding the settings many authors have their own selection of places. Some have even marked out a region as their own. After reading the ‘Waverley Novels’ of Walter Scott, one looks for the places mentioned in the novels. Thomas Hardy dominates the south-western England for which he gave the name Wessex. Arnold Bennett selected the Midland region potteries as the background for his novels. The seexamples will be enough to show how English novelists responded to local influences. One can even classify the novels by their social settings.

Through every novel unintentionally the author comes up with his own views of life and problems. Older writers saw nothing wrong in this and it was a regular practice with them to give a type of running commentary. It was a time when people liked to be lectured rather than entertained. But in modern fiction, readers do not like the authors appearance since it interrupts his story. In fact, the readers like the lesson to be taught revealing through the plot and the characters rather than the author teaching them. The effect of this method will be great. The Short Story is a prose narrative of shorter length than the novel especially one that has a single them. It is not merely a greatly shortened novel. It has all the usual constituents of a fiction. But the plot, character and setting cannot be treated with the same detail as in a novel. Each has to be reduced to the minimum, but should get the intended effect. The plot should be reduced to the essentials. Characters are used to the indispensables. Sometimes the writer may construct a story of plot alone with characters and setting restricted to the requirement. At other times character alone may be prominent with plot and setting restricted.

The language of short story should contribute to its effect different from a novel which has passages that sometimes has nothing to do with the plot. This will drag the plot and lead it nowhere. Descriptive passages are only valuable in so far as they contribute towards the total effect. Short stories will long continue to meet the needs of readers and find new plots to suit the taste of the changing

world.

Essay- as a writing method in literature.

Essay is an impotent writing method in literature .  An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal. Formal essays are characterized by "serious purpose, dignity, logical organization, length," whereas the informal essay is characterized by "the personal element (self-revelation, individual tastes and experiences, confidential manner), humor, graceful style, rambling structure, unconventionality or novelty of theme," etc.

Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g., Alexander Pope's An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries (e.g., the United States and Canada), essays have become a major part of formal education. Secondary students are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills; admission essays are often used by universities in selecting applicants, and in the humanities and social sciences essays are often used as a way of assessing the performance of students during final exams.

The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary film making styles, and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic essay covers a topic with a linked series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways. One definition is a "prose composition with a focused subject of discussion" or a "long, systematic discourse". It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall. Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that "the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything", and adds that "by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece". Furthermore, Huxley argues that "essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference". These three poles (or worlds in which the essay may exist) are:

The personal and the autobiographical: The essayists that feel most comfortable in this pole "write fragments of reflective autobiography and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description".

The objective, the factual, and the concrete-particular: The essayists that write from this pole "do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme. Their art consists on setting forth, passing judgement upon, and drawing general conclusions from the relevant data".

The abstract-universal: In this pole "we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions", who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience.

Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays "...make the best not of one, not of two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist."

The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt". In English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this is still an alternative meaning. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts into writing, and his essays grew out of his commonplacing. Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose Œuvres Morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot, Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled Essais, was published in two volumes in 1580. For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597, 1612, and 1625, were the first works in English that described themselves as essays. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, according to the Oxford English Dictionary

why Human language is different from animal language ?

1. Duality of patterning (Duality of structure)

Language displays two levels of patterning. It is made up of sounds and smaller formalunits called phonemes, morpheme and words. A stretch of speech in any human language can be analyzed into smaller units and larger number of meaning can be expressed by means of limited number of signals. For instance a sentence such as “Our teachers like all the students” can be analyzed into words: Out/teacher/like/all/the/students/. Some of these

words may further be broken into smaller units: teach/er/s; student/s. Each word in the

sentence is made up of speech sounds called phonemes. For example the word ‘like’ is made up of an initial consonant /l/, a medial diphthong /ai/and a final consonant /k/. The same words can be rearranged in order to construct another sentence “All the students like our teachers”. Thus in human language two levels of structure are found: a primary level which consists of compounding of words

and a secondary level which consists of compounding of sounds.

Animal communication on the other hand, consists of meaningful cries which cannot

be analyzed into constituent elements such as phonemes, morphemes or words. The cry of animals denotes approaching danger, mating instinct, anger etc. The chirping of birds and the buzzing of bees are means of communication. But they serve only a limited number of purposes. The bees for example, have only two modes of body movements called bee dance- one to signify distance and the other to denote the direction of forage. Unlike animal language, human language is articulate as it has got a structure. Human language can be analyzed into a number of smaller constituent elements like words, phonemes and

morphemes. That is why human language is said to be a “system of systems”. The cry of animals or the body movement of the bees cannot be analyzed into smaller units. Human language is structured at different levels- at the level of phonemes and morphemes and at the level of words. Charles Hockett calls this property of language as the duality of

structure

2. Recursiveness (Creativity)

Since there are various ways of combining the units of language, there is

considerable scope for creativity within it. Using a few basic rules of construction, human beings can produce and understand a large number of utterances. There is no limit to the length or number of sentences a speaker can produce. Using a finite number of rules which are repeatedly used, a speaker can produce grammatical sentences never uttered before.

This property of language is called recursiveness. We can add new words and sentences to the already existing ones or even form sentences inside sentences. This property of

language is referred to as creativity. Languages always remain open-ended. The signals in human language can be combined in a variety of ways. Human language may therefore be called an open -ended system.

Animal language, on the other hand, exhibits only a very little creativity or recursiveness. It does not have any variety of combination or organization of constituent

elements.

3. Arbitrariness. Generally speaking, there is no one-to-one correspondence between the vocal sounds

and the concepts or ideas they stand for. The relationship between a word and its referent is purely arbitrary. In other words there is no positive relationship between a speech sound and the object. This property of language is referred to as arbitrariness. There are a few exceptions to this feature of language. A few words are representational in nature. In English, for example , words like ‘buzz’, ‘hiss’, ‘rattle’, ‘bang’, ‘thud’ etc. actually

represent the sounds of their referents. Such words are called Onomatopoeic words. With the exception of such words, the relationship between the signifier and the signified (i.e. the word and its referent) is generally arbitrary.

4. Displacement.

Animal communication is context bound but human communication can be context

free. Human beings can talk about others experiences. They can talk of objects and events which are not present at the time and the place of speaking because the use of human language is not directly controlled by stimulus. This property of language is called displacement. In the case of animals, there is a direct relationship between stimulus and they can respond only to their immediate environment.

5. Transferability.

Human language has two basic manifestations: One is speech and the other is

writing. It is possible to write down spoken language and read aloud the written material. This property of language is referred to as transferability. These differences between human language and animal language are primarily due to the fact that the human brain has an innate capacity for learning language creatively.

DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE

Language is a means of communication. It is a means of conveying our thoughts,

ideas, feelings, and emotions to other people. However, language is not the only means of communication. Signs, gestures and facial expression can also communicate our thoughts and ideas. Language is different from signs and gestures, because it employs speech

sounds. These speech sounds have meaning. To define language is not an easy task. Different linguists tried to define language variously. However, if we analyse the definitions closely, we will find that each of these definitions is incomplete in some respect or the other. These definitions will raise a large number of questions.

Some of the most commonly approved definitions of language given by the experts

in the field of linguistics are given below:

Edward Sapir says: “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols” This definition is rather incomplete because ‘ideas, emotions and desires’ are not the only things communicated by language. The term language covers a wide range of implication such as body language, sign language and animal language.

According to Hall, language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and

interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”

Hall’s definition is narrow because it regards language purely as a human institution.

We know that animals do communicate. Animals have their own language.

In the words of Noam Chomsky, language is “a set of (finite or infinite) sentences,

each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”

Chomsky focuses on the structural features of language. He showed how language

can be investigated by analyzing it into its constituent elements.

Each of these linguists focuses on certain aspects of language and ignores some

others. However what they have said of language is true, though not comprehensive.

Some important characteristic features of human language are given below:

* language is ubiquitous

* language is a means of communication

* language is systematic

* language is conventional

* language is arbitrary

* language is social

* language is cultural

* language has a duality of structure

* language is recursive

* displacement

* transference

* language is dynamic

These characteristic features of human language make it different from other forms

of communication. The differences are primarily due to the fact that human brain is

different from animal. The human brain has an innate capacity for learning language

creativity.

Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language.

Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language. The study of language

must begin with certain idea about language. Language is perhaps the most interesting entity that mankind has ever come across. We use language for communicating our thoughts and feelings with others and the language we use is transmitted from generation to generation without much deliberate effort on our part. Those who have not studied language systematically do use language with much ease and they are never bothered about the complexities of the ways in which the constituent elements of language combine and organize to make meaningful utterances.

 This fact does not make us come to the conclusion

that the systematic and scientific study of language is meaningless. The study of language\ is significant as it ultimately takes us to the beginnings of our culture and social life. Language has become an essential part of our lives. The study of language in a scientific and systematic way is therefore, significant both in terms of academic and cultural point ofview.

 Language occupies an important place in the lives of human beings. Language is the very medium of expression. The everyday activities of life are sure to come to an end unless language functions as a means of communication. Language is inextricably tied up with the social and cultural evolution of mankind. Language is as familiar to us as the air we breathe or the saliva that we carry in our mouth. So we are hardly conscious of its significance. However, the effects of language are most remarkable. It is in fact language that distinguishes human beings from the animals. C. L. Barber rightly remarked: “Language is the most remarkable tool that man has invented and is one that makes all other

possible”

Comparative literature

 it is the wide and lengthy topic in education, ugc net exam will ask about this toipc .Comparative literature is an academic field dealing with the study of literature and cultural expression across linguistic, national, and disciplinary boundaries. Comparative literature "performs a role similar to that of the study of international relations, but works with languages and artistic traditions, so as to understand cultures 'from the inside'."While most frequently practiced with works of different languages, comparative literature may also be performed on works of the same language if the works originate from different nations or cultures among which that language is spoken.

The characteristically intercultural and transnational field of comparative literature concerns itself with the relation between literature, broadly defined, and other spheres of human activity, including history, politics, philosophy, art, and science. Unlike other forms of literary study, comparative literature places its emphasis on the interdisciplinary analysis of social and cultural production within the "economy, political dynamics, cultural movements, historical shifts, religious differences, the urban environment, international relations, public policy, and the sciences. 

Students and instructors in the field, usually called "comparatists," have traditionally been proficient in several languages and acquainted with the literary traditions, literary criticism, and major literary texts of those languages. Many of the newer sub-fields, however, are more influenced by critical theory and literary theory, stressing theoretical acumen and the ability to consider different types of art concurrently, over high linguistic competence.

The interdisciplinary nature of the field means that comparatists typically exhibit acquaintance with sociology, history, anthropology, translation studies, critical theory, cultural studies, and religious studies. As a result, comparative literature programs within universities may be designed by scholars drawn from several such departments. This eclecticism has led critics (from within and without) to charge that Comparative Literature is insufficiently well-defined, or that comparatists too easily fall into dilettantism, because the scope of their work is, of necessity, broad. Some question whether this breadth affects the ability of Ph.D.s to find employment in the highly specialized environment of academia and the career market at large, although such concerns do not seem to be borne out by placement data that shows comparative literature graduates to be hired at similar or higher rates than their peers in English.

The terms "Comparative Literature" and "World Literature" are often used to designate a similar course of study and scholarship. Comparative Literature is the more widely used term in the United States, with many universities having Comparative Literature departments or Comparative Literature programs.

Comparative literature is an interdisciplinary field whose practitioners study literature across national borders, across time periods, across languages, across genres, across boundaries between literature and the other arts (music, painting, dance, film, etc.), across disciplines (literature and psychology, philosophy, science, history, architecture, sociology, politics, etc.). Defined most broadly, comparative literature is the study of "literature without borders." Scholarship in Comparative Literature include, for example, studying literacy and social status in the Americas, studying medieval epic and romance, studying the links of literature to folklore and mythology, studying colonial and postcolonial writings in different parts of the world, asking fundamental questions about definitions of literature itself. What scholars in Comparative Literature share is a desire to study literature beyond national boundaries and an interest in languages so that they can read foreign texts in their original form. Many comparatists also share the desire to integrate literary experience with other cultural phenomena such as historical change, philosophical concepts, and social movements.

The discipline of Comparative Literature has scholarly associations such as the ICLA: International Comparative Literature Association and comparative literature associations exists in many countries: for a list of such see BCLA: British Comparative Literature Association; for the US, see ACLA: American Comparative Literature Association. There are many learned journals that publish scholarship in Comparative Literature: see "Selected Comparative Literature and Comparative Humanities Journals" and for a list of books in Comparative Literature see "Bibliography of (Text)Books in Comparative Literature

Role os Science fiction in literature.

It is the wide subject in literature. Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction typically dealing with imaginativeconcepts such as futuristic science andtechnology, space travel, time travel,faster than light travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a "literature of ideas."It usually eschews the supernatural, and unlike the related genre of fantasy, historically science fiction stories were intended to have at least a faint grounding inscience-based fact or theory at the time the story was created, but this connection has become tenuous or non-existent in much of science fiction.

As a means of understanding the world through speculation and storytelling, science fiction has antecedents which go back to an era when the dividing line separating the mythological from the historical tends to become somewhat blurred, though precursors to science fiction as literature can be seen inLucian's True History in the 2nd century, some of the Arabian Nightstales, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutterin the 10th century and Ibn al-Nafis'sTheologus Autodidactus in the 13th century.

A product of the budding Age of Reasonand the development of modern scienceitself, Johannes Kepler's Somnium(1620–1630)., Cyrano de Bergerac'sComical History of the States and Empires of the Moon (1657), his The States and Empires of the Sun (1662), Margaret Cavendish's "The Blazing World" (1666),Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726), Ludvig Holberg's novelNicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum (1741) and Voltaire's Micromégas (1752) are some of the first true science fantasy works,which often feature the adventures of the protagonist in fictional and fantastical places, or the moon. Isaac Asimov and Carl Saganconsidered Kepler's work the first science fiction story.It depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there.

Following the 18th-century development of the novel as a literary form, in the early 19th century, Mary Shelley's booksFrankenstein (1818) and The Last Manhelped define the form of the science fiction novel, and Brian Aldiss has argued that Frankenstein was the first work of science fiction. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon. More examples appeared throughout the 19th centuries

Then with the dawn of new technologies such as electricity, the telegraph, and new forms of powered transportation, writers including H. G. Wells and Jules Verne created a body of work that became popular across broad cross-sections of society.Wells' The War of the Worlds (1898) describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry. It is a seminal depiction of an alien invasionof Earth.

In the late 19th century, the term "scientific romance" was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions by Edwin Abbott Abbott. The term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapled.

In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Storiesmagazine.In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his three-decade-long series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars and featuring John Carter as the hero. The 1928 publication of Philip Francis Nowlan's original Buck Rogers story,Armageddon 2419, in Amazing Storieswas a landmark event. This story led to comic strips featuring Buck Rogers (1929), Brick Bradford (1933), and Flash Gordon (1934). The comic strips and derivative movie serials greatly popularized science fiction.

In the late 1930s, John W. Campbellbecame editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and a critical mass of new writers emerged in New York City in a group called the Futurians, includingIsaac Asimov, Damon Knight, Donald A. Wollheim, Frederik Pohl, James Blish,Judith Merril, and others.Other important writers during this period include E.E. (Doc) Smith, Robert A. Heinlein, Arthur C. Clarke, Olaf Stapledon, and A. E. van Vogt. Working outside the Campbell influence wereRay Bradbury and Stanisław Lem. Campbell's tenure at Astounding is considered to be the beginning of theGolden Age of science fiction, characterized by hard SF stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress. This lasted until post-war technological advances, new magazines such as Galaxy, edited by H. L. Gold, and a new generation of writers began writing stories with less emphasis on the hard sciences and more on the social sciences.

In the 1950s, the Beat generationincluded speculative writers such asWilliam S. Burroughs. In the 1960s and early 1970s, writers like Frank Herbert,Samuel R. Delany, Roger Zelazny, andHarlan Ellison explored new trends, ideas, and writing styles, while a group of writers, mainly in Britain, became known as the New Wave for their embrace of a high degree of experimentation, both in form and in content, and a highbrow and self-consciously "literary" or artistic sensibility.In the 1970s, writers likeLarry Niven brought new life to hard science fiction. Ursula K. Le Guin and others pioneered soft science fiction.

In the 1980s, cyberpunk authors likeWilliam Gibson turned away from theoptimism and support for progress of traditional science fiction.This dystopian vision of the near future is described in the work of Philip K. Dick, such as Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and We Can Remember It for You Wholesale, which resulted in the filmsBlade Runner and Total Recall. The Star Wars franchise helped spark a new interest in space opera.C. J. Cherryh's detailed explorations of alienlife and complex scientific challenges influenced a generation of writers.

Emerging themes in the 1990s includedenvironmental issues, the implications of the global Internet and the expanding information universe, questions aboutbiotechnology and nanotechnology, as well as a post-Cold War interest in post-scarcity societies; Neal Stephenson'sThe Diamond Age comprehensively explores these themes. Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan novels brought the character-driven story back into prominence. The television seriesStar Trek: The Next Generation (1987) began a torrent of new SF shows, including three further Star Trek spin-off shows (Deep Space 9, Voyager, andEnterprise) and Babylon 5.[35] Stargate, a movie about an ancient portal to other gates across the galaxy, was released in 1994. Stargate SG-1, a TV series, premiered on July 27, 1997 and lasted 10 seasons with 214 episodes. Spin-offs include the animated television series Stargate Infinity, the TV seriesStargate Atlantis and Stargate Universe, and the direct-to-DVD films Stargate: The Ark of Truth and Stargate: Continuum.Stargate SG-1 surpassed The X-Files as the longest-running North American science fiction television series, a record later broken by Smallville.

Concern about the rapid pace of technological change crystallized around the concept of the technological singularity, popularized by Vernor Vinge's novel Marooned in Realtime and then taken up by other authors.